| Height and weight | The researcher instructed the participant to stand barefoot on the InBody device and assume a standard anatomical posture.14 Participants stood barefoot on the device in a standard anatomical posture. Measurements were initiated after maintaining the static posture for approximately 10 seconds. |
| Waist circumference | Waist circumference was measured by standing at the participant’s side, with the measurer identifying the lower edge of the last rib and the upper edge of the iliac crest. A tape measure was placed midway between these two points, ensuring that the tape measure was parallel to the floor. After exhaling, the tape measure was pulled back enough to avoid pressing on the skin, and measurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 cm.15 |
| Maximal grip strength | Maximal grip strength was measured with the participant seated upright on a chair. The participant grasped the hand dynamometer with the shoulder adducted and in a neutral position, the elbow flexed at 90°, the forearm in a neutral position, and the wrist positioned in 0°–15° extension and 0°–15° radial deviation. The dynamometer was aligned directly with the participant’s hand and forearm. Prior to testing, the hand and arm were inspected for pain or previous surgical history. Participants were instructed to exert maximal voluntary force during each trial. All measurements were performed on the dominant hand only, and three repeated trials were conducted. To minimize muscular fatigue, a 5-minute rest interval was provided between each trial.16 |
| Craniovertebral angle | The craniovertebral angle was used to assess forward head posture. The measurement was performed with the participant seated upright on a chair, while a camera was positioned 80 cm away at shoulder height. Circular markers were placed on the participant’s C7 spinous process and tragus, and the participant was instructed to sit comfortably and look straight ahead. While maintaining a forward gaze and relaxed breathing, a lateral photograph was taken from the dominant side. The captured images were analyzed using ImageJ software to quantify the angle of head posture, defined as the angle formed between the line connecting the midpoint of the tragus and the C7 spinous process and a horizontal line passing through the C7 spinous process.17 A CVA of less than 48° is considered indicative of forward head posture in children, and a smaller CVA value reflects a greater severity of forward head posture.18 |
| Scoliosis angles | Thoracic scoliosis angle and lumbar scoliosis angle were measured using a scoliometer. Scoliosis was assessed using a scoliometer. The participant stood upright and barefoot, with both arms parallel and flexed at the shoulder joints to 90°, palms together. The participants then slowly flexed forward at the waist, lowering the shoulders to hip level. The examiner positioned the scoliometer along the midline at the level of the most prominent vertebrae and recorded the maximum angle.12 Measurements were obtained for both the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine. A scoliometer reading is widely adopted as the primary screening measure for scoliosis, and a value of ≥5° is typically applied as the diagnostic cutoff.19 |